Vitamin D and Women's Health

One of the most interesting sessions of the recent 2009 North American Menopause Society discussed the impact of Vitamin D on health issues important to women. Did you know that low levels of vitamin D have been linked to breast cancer, colon cancer, ovarian cancer, high blood pressure, and strokes? This is in addition to the well established role that vitamin D plays in bone health. Condensing the most current research down to a practical level let's answer these questions:

• Is all Vitamin D the same?
• What are some common sources of Vitamin D?
• How much Vitamin D is recommended?
• How much of an impact does vitamin D have on female cancers?
• What about other health problems?
• Should I get my blood Vitamin D level tested?

Is all Vitamin D the same?

Vitamin D from sunlight, foods, and even vitamin supplements is not biologically active. It has to undergo two processes, the first occurring in the liver which converts vitamin D to the 25(OH)D form, also known as calcidiol or Vitamin D². The kidney then makes the most active form 1,25(OH)²D, also known as calcitriol or Vitamin D³. If you check your bottle of vitamins, or calcium + vitamin D supplements, you can see which type you have been taking. Currently the preferred supplement form may be Vitamin D³ as it increases the amount of active Vitamin D while increasing the time Vitamin D is active in the blood and tissues.

What are some common sources of Vitamin D?

Vitamin D is made when UV-B rays strike the skin. One general recommendation has been to have 20 minutes of sun exposure to face, arms, leg or back twice a week during the most intense times for sun exposure (i.e., 10:00 AM through 3:00 PM). Alas, the amount of Vitamin D that can be obtained this way can be limited by several factors. If one has dark skin, uses an 8 or greater SPF sunscreen, wears occlusive clothing, or gets sun exposure only through window glass-the amount of Vitamin D is greatly decreased. If one lives above the 42nd parallel, the months of November through February do not produce sufficient Vitamin D even when the sun is not hidden by clouds. Cloud cover, shade, and air pollution will further reduce the amount of UV-B.

Many of us prefer to get vitamins naturally from whole foods as opposed to supplements. Some of the highest sources of Vitamin D are listed below:

Cod liver oil, 1 tablespoon	1360 IU
Cooked salmon, 3.5 ounces	400 IU
Sardines in oil, drained 1.75 ounces	250 IU
Tuna in oil, drained 3 ounces	200 IU
Vit D fortified orange juice, 1 cup	142 IU
Vit D fortified milk, 1 cup	98 IU
Vit D fortified yoghurts, 6 ounces	80 IU
Egg yolk, 1	20 IU

For comparison, the usual amount of Vitamin D in a multivitamin pill is 400 IU (International Units).

How much Vitamin D is recommended?

Since the 1930's, when milk was first fortified with vitamin D to prevent rickets, the usual recommendation has been 200 IU to 400 IU daily during times of inadequate sun exposure. Women above age 50 should be receiving 400 IU to 800 IU. Recently, experts in the area have been lobbying for a new recommended level of 1000 IU daily among adults (Vieth, 2007). The Food and Nutritional Board at the Institute of Medicine began reviewing the published studies in 2008 and are expected to publish new guidelines in spring of 2010.

For comparison, the upper tolerable limit (adverse results begin to appear) has been reputed to be 2000 IU/day. Many researchers in the field have suggested that the toxic level is closer to 10,000 IU/day over a more prolonged period of time.

How much of an impact does Vitamin D have on female cancers?

Breast Cancer
Given what you now know about the different types of Vitamin D and the different amounts used by women you can appreciate the difficulties in trying to establish the clear cut role of Vitamin D in cancer prevention. In the most recent, largest study (meta-analysis) of Vitamin D, calcium and the prevention of breast cancer (Chen, 2009), both Vitamin D and calcium seemed to be protective for the development of breast cancer. The best results were among women with the highest intakes of Vitamin D and calcium as compared to the lowest levels of consumption. The top quarter of women having the highest blood 25(OH)D levels had a 45% decreased risk of breast cancer.

Another study of 562 women (Rejnmark, 2009) found that the 142 women with a diagnosed breast cancer had, on average, lower blood levels of 25(OH)D. Women with the highest levels of 25(OH)D had a significantly reduced risk for breast cancer. Surprisingly, use of Vitamin D supplements, sunbathing, and fish intake did increase blood levels of 25(OH)D-but the lifestyle factors did not directly impact the risk of breast cancer.

Conversely McCullough and colleagues (2009), studying almost 22,000 women, found no impact of blood levels of 25(OH)D on the risk of breast cancer. A study of almost 42,000 Swedish women (Kuper, 2009) did not identify linkages between breast cancer risk and sun exposure, nor Vitamin D intake through diet or multivitamin use.

Ovarian Cancer
The impact of Vitamin D on ovarian cancer has not been as well studied but it has been purported to have a protective effect. Researchers at the Channing Laboratory (associated with Harvard University) used data from four large studies to examine the effects of Vitamin D (Tworoger, 2009) on ovarian cancer. It was determined that blood levels of Vitamin D did not directly impact cancer risk from any of the four genotypes. However, a specific type of the Vitamin D receptor gene was significantly tied to ovarian cancer risk.

What about other health problems?

Colon Cancer
Several studies have found that blood levels of 25(OH)D could be predictive of colon cancer risk. More recently Ng (2009) and fellow investigators looked at both risk for getting colon cancer, and the ability to survive, as it related to 25(OH)D blood levels among 1017 persons. Participants in the top quarter of 25(OH)D levels, as opposed to the lowest quarter, had significantly less colon cancer. They also had the lowest death rates from colon cancer, and the lowest rates of over all mortality.

Cardiovascular Disease
In Finland a 25-30 year study of over 6,000 persons found an increased risk of fatal vascular disease in those who had the lowest blood levels of 25(OH)D. Interestingly, this relationship was apparent for the incidence of strokes but not heart attacks (Kikkinen, 2009). Proposed mechanisms for improved blood vessel health include Vitamin D's beneficial impact on high blood pressure via kidney hormones, decreased inflammation inside the arteries, and improved insulin resistance via changes in parathyroid hormone (Lee, 2008).

Depression
There have been studies suggesting that high dose supplements of Vitamin D, or fish oil supplements, may improve mild depression. Jorde (2008) noted an improvement in scores on the Beck Depression Inventory after a year of supplementation with 20,000-40,000 IU per week of Vitamin D as compared to placebo. This was a study of overweight and obese subjects, not persons with diagnosed depression. At this point, treatment with high dose Vitamin D for depressive symptoms is considered experimental and should be considered only with medical supervision.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) & Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
Vitamin D has found to have effects on immune function and inflammation. Earlier studies suggested a relationship of Vitamin D to autoimmune conditions. A group of women within the Nurses Health Study was targeted with food and vitamin questionnaires. There was no apparent association between increasing Vitamin D intake and the risk of developing these autoimmune disorders (Costenbader, 2008).

Should I get my blood level of Vitamin D checked?

As with many blood tests (e.g., hormone levels) there can be considerable variation in results from lab to lab, time of day or season (e.g., Vitamin D levels tend to be best at the end of summer). Perhaps the best indicator of general Vitamin D levels is 25(OH)D blood test for it measures Vitamin D from both sun and dietary sources. This form of Vitamin D also lasts in the body for around 30 days.

In many cases the "normal" or preventative level of Vitamin D has yet to be determined. Cardiovascular risk begins to rise steeply when the blood level of 25(OH)D is below 10-15 ng/mL. Optimal levels may be at least 30 ng/mL. Depending upon all other factors present it might take a daily intake of 1000-2000 IU per day get to blood levels of 30 ng/mL (Giovannucci, 2009). The following blood 25(OH)D levels are taken from an updated National Institutes of Health document:

Blood level		Health Status
Ng/mL	nmo/L
<10-15	<25-37	Consistent with rickets, low bone density, poor health
>15	>37.5	Adequate for healthy persons
>200	>500	Potentially toxic

Some Vitamin D researchers have stated that most benefits level out at blood levels of 30-40 ng/mL (Giovannucci, NAMS 2009). It will remain to be seen if the new recommendations due to be published in May of 2010 will have different cut off levels for defining optimal blood levels.

So, who should push for blood testing? Bearing in mind that the 25(OH)D blood test can cost upwards of $200, many primary care providers have chosen to just recommend an increased intake of Vitamin D. The dose is based upon the person's specific health history. Until there are studies set specifically to establish optimal dosage and blood levels the primary care model makes sense. Among healthy adult women, without excessive sun contact, consuming 800 IU per day of Vitamin D is a reasonable choice. For your specific Vitamin D recommendation, check with your GYN or primary care provider.

If you are interested in more information, the following site offers an excellent overview, especially of the effects of Vitamin D on specific health conditions:

http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp

Stay tuned for a discussion of the newest recommendations when they are released!

My Female Organs Are Falling Down

© 2009 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.

Have you ever looked "down there" with a mirror (or had a lover say to you) that there seemed to be a "bulge" or "ball of tissue" at the vaginal opening? The medical name for this condition is pelvic organ prolapse (POP). POP is purported to effect up to 50% of women who have had a vaginal delivery (Maher, 2008). In other studies of women in general, rates of POP with marked symptoms are reported to be 3.6 - 6%.

The first concern is that one's uterus, or other pelvic parts, might be falling out. In one of the more severe forms of POP the uterus can drop so far down into the vaginal canal that the cervix will scrape against the woman's underpants! Fortunately this is one of the least common forms of POP. So if you were to see a "bulge" of tissue what is that likely to mean to you? The goal of this blog is to share facts about the types of POP, the risk factors, and what treatment options you might have if POP seems to be linked to other, bothersome symptoms.

How do I know what type of prolapse I have?
When you go see your GYN or clinic you might expect questions about: urinary or bowel incontinence, difficulty emptying the rectum, or sexual problems. This can suggest areas which are involved with the "bulge". An exam should be done with you standing and/or bearing down when you are on the exam table. If loss of urine is a concurrent problem then a urinalysis may be done along with a Q-tip test and/or a measure of urine left in the bladder after you have go to the bathroom.

There are several types of prolapses. When the upper part of the vaginal canal loses its muscle tone or attachments holding the vagina up (especially common among women with hysterectomies) that is called vaginal prolapse. If muscle support is poor, or interrupted, the bladder can prolapse down through the "roof" of the vagina causing a cystocele. The urethra may drop down as well (urethrocele). If the weakness is in the "floor" of the vagina the rectum can bulge upward. As was mentioned above, the uterus and cervix can slump down through the vaginal canal.

What are the risk factors for pelvic prolapse?
The most consistently cited risk factors are: increasing age, being overweight, and increased number of vaginal deliveries. Number of deliveries by C-section does not increase prolapse risk (Luckacz, 2006). Other associated factors can include irritable bowel syndrome, constipation, and overall poor health (Rortveit, 2007). African American women are less likely to have symptomatic pelvic prolapse (Rortveit, 2007). One small study even found that having a history of stretch marks doubled one's risk for prolapse (Salter, 2006).

"Stretch marks," you might be thinking "why would that be?" The bones of the female pelvis do a great job protecting lower abdominal contents, but they do not provide support. The pelvic organs are supported by the muscles in the pelvic floor and the ligaments which can attach from the organs to the bones. It has been theorized that pelvic muscle and ligament strength may be linked to strength of collagen. Collagen, along with fibrillin, is decreased in women with stretch marks (Mitts,2005).

What can be done if I have a mild form of prolapse, or do not want to have surgery?
According to the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology (ACOG, 2007): "Pessaries can be fitted in most women with prolapse, regardless of prolapse stage or site of predominant prolapse." A pessary is a doughnut shaped device which can be made of various materials. There are also pessaries shaped like a cube, and similar to a shoe horn. If one has ever used a diaphragm for birth control, inserting and removing a pessary may seem familiar. Like a diaphragm, a pessary should be fit by a GYN as they come in different sizes.

Kegel exercises have been recommended for POP but, unlike urinary stress incontinence, there are few large studies demonstrating the effectiveness of Kegels. According to one recent study of 48 women, pelvic floor exercise/Kegels significantly improved symptoms of prolapse (Hagen, 2009). Kegels may not be as successful as they are with urinary incontinence for once the attachment ligaments are damaged, strengthening the pelvic muscles may not fix the prolapse.

What about surgery?
If one has a prolapse of the uterus, hysterectomy may be suggested. Care is taken to refasten the top of the vaginal canal to other structures so it does not droop down after the hysterectomy.

If the prolapse is coming from the top or "roof "of the vagina, pelvic fascia tissue can be used to bridge the weak area. If the prolapse is coming from the lower or "floor" of the vagina (causing a bulging of the rectum into the vaginal canal), the rectal muscles can be used to close the defect.

More recently synthetic mesh has been used to support the weakened areas. Mesh has been used extensively for repair of abdominal hernias. Overall, the use of mesh seems to decrease the reoccurrence of cystocele when an anterior ("top") of the vagina repair is done (Maher, 2008). The primary concern for mesh is that long term follow up in large numbers of POP women is lacking. Cases of the mesh eroding through vaginal tissues have been reported (Altman, 2007). By October of 2008 the FDA released a notification to GYN surgeons relating adverse events connected to mesh use as reported by manufacturers of different types of mesh. Some of these unwanted events included erosion, infection, and pain. Not surprisingly, the strength and health of the woman's own tissues will have an impact. Her own tissues will have to be incorporated into the mesh to form a strong bond.

In one study of 2,460 of women in their 50's, about 3% of women reported having surgery for POP (Fritel, 2009). Further, women who had such symptoms of POP as problems having a bowel movement or urinating, and abdominal pain reported a much lower quality of life than other women. In one very large study (Barber, 2009), 85% of women considered themselves "much better" when compared to before their surgery. Bottom line, surgery of some type can be very helpful if a woman has symptoms from her prolapse.

My mom and her sisters had prolapse; can I do anything to prevent it happening to me?
We cannot change our genetics, age, or number of vaginal births! Sadly there are not many scientific studies testing different forms of POP prevention. The strategies for prevention that are most often suggested include:

• Kegel exercises up to four times daily. The hope is that by strengthening muscles in the pelvic floor that those muscles can help delay, or reduce, the onset of prolapse. For information about how to do Kegels correctly check out this article: Kegel Exercises - Topic Overview


• Physical exercise. Regular exercise can help keep one's body weight down, and being overweight is linked to prolapse. Exercise is also reputed to keep muscles and ligaments more flexible.


• Decrease straining to have a bowel movement. Constipation, or having to bear down, increases pressure in the abdomen which "pushes down" on pelvic organs. Eating a healthy diet with whole grains, fruits, and vegetable not only helps constipation, but can improve body weight.


• Treat chronic coughs. If one is a smoker - quit. If there is another reason for a chronic cough - have it treated. A cough increases the pressure inside the abdomen which can "push down" on pelvic organs. There are studies linking smoking with poorer tissue integrity after POP repair (Araco, 2009).


• Use a correct technique for heavy lifting. Straining to lift increases pressure within the abdomen. Here is a good over view of safe lifting: Back Problems - Proper Lifting


• Hysterectomy surgery considerations. If one is having a hysterectomy there are studies which suggest that attaching the uterine ligaments to the top of the vagina may help to keep the vagina from dropping down (Yazdany, 2008).

If you would like more information about pelvic prolapse, consider checking these articles:

• Repair of Vaginal Wall Prolapse (Vaginal Vault Prolapse)
• Pelvic Organ Prolapse

Related Topics:

• GYN Issues with Jane Harrison-Hohner, RN, RNP
• Get the Women's Health newsletter in your inbox weekly

Test Your PAP Smear IQ

The first PAP smears were done over 60 years ago! Within the past decade we have seen the development of a vaccine reported to reduce the risk of cervical cancer, the widespread use of liquid based PAPs ("PAP in a bottle"), human papilloma virus (HPV) testing, and altered recommendations about when to do a PAP smear. So sharpen your pencils and test your PAP Smear IQ! Correct answers and scoring follow this "PAP Quiz"

1. The time to begin getting PAP smears is either age 18 or shortly after you first have sex.
   True/False



2. A PAP can diagnose sexually transmitted infections such as gonorrhea or Chlamydia.
   True/False



3. Most forms of cervical cancer can be linked to the HPV virus.
   True/False



4. If I get the new HPV vaccine I don't need to get PAP smears.
   True/False



5. By age 30, if a woman has had three, consecutive, normal PAPs she can drop down to PAP smears every two to three years.
   True/False



6. If a woman was exposed to the drug DES before birth, has HIV, or depressed immune function (e.g., on organ transplant drugs) she can now defer her PAP smears to every other year.
   True/False



7. About 50% of women with cervical cancer in the US had not had a PAP within the past five years.
   True/False



8. DNA tests for HPV are better able to discriminate the really worrisome cell changes than a PAP smear.
   True/False



9. The newer liquid based PAP smears are definitely better at identifying abnormal cells.
   True/False



10. Once you have had a hysterectomy you can stop getting PAP smears.
    True/False

ANSWERS

1. False. This was true seven to nine years ago, but newer studies have suggested that HPV infections (linked to abnormal PAP smears) tend to resolve in younger women. This may be due to better immune system function which fights off the HPV more effectively. The recommendation to wait until three years after starting intercourse is based upon the hope that many HPV infections will be spontaneously cleared. Also, abnormal cervical cells do not progress quickly to cervical cancer - especially within three years.
   
   One well done study by Ho and colleagues (1998) followed older adolescents over three years. At the end of the study some 43% became HPV positive. This confirms the ease with which HPV can be passed between sexual partners. Surprisingly, of this group of newly infected women, only 9% continued to show persisting evidence of HPV.
   
   For women who have been assaulted or sexually molested while very young, it is important that they get a PAP smear earlier. If the assault was in childhood, she should get a PAP as a teenager for there are several factors which place her at increased risk for abnormal PAP smears.



2. False. A PAP smear examines cells from the face of the cervix and the cervical canal. It does not diagnose chlamydia, gonorrhea or other sexually transmitted infections. A special test for HPV (considered a sexually transmitted infection) can be done using liquid left after doing a liquid based type of PAP smear.



3. True. Most forms of cervical cancer have been linked to HPV. Particularly strong links exist between the high risk subtypes of HPV (e.g., subtypes 16 and 18). There are more than 30 types of HPV which are sexually transmitted. These have been classified into "low risk" and "high risk" subtypes. HPV subtypes 6 and 11 are considered to be low risk. They are linked primarily to the cauliflower-appearing genital warts, and low grade cervical lesions (e.g., LGSIL, CIN 1). Subtypes 16 and 18 are considered to be high risk as they are linked with persisting HPV infections and severely abnormal PAP smears. These two high risk subtypes are the probable cause of about 70% of cervical cancers.



4. False. If one gets the newer vaccine designed to decrease the risk of cervical cancer, one is protected from HPV subtypes 16 and 18. One of the two versions of the vaccine will provide protection from subtypes 6 and 11 as well. Both vaccines have been shown in large research studies to provide 100% protection for the high risk subtypes. However, the vaccine does not cover all HPV subtypes (e.g., HPV subtypes numbered in the 30's) which have been linked to persisting abnormal PAP smears. This is why PAP smears are still recommended even in those who have had the HPV vaccine.



5. True. Between the time one gets her first PAP smear and age 30 or so, she should get PAP smears every one to three years. Then, if she has had three normal PAP smears in a row, she can drop back to PAP smears every two years or so. Once one is over the age of 30, a GYN may order an HPV test on her cervical cells. If the HPV test is positive it will likely be repeated within the next 6-12 months. A persisting HPV infection is correlated to abnormal cell changes-even if the PAP smear seems normal. By contrast, a normal PAP smear result coupled with a negative HPV test result suggests that cervical cancer is unlikely to emerge over the next several years.



6. False. Unfortunately, women exposed to DES, or those who have conditions which suppress the immune system (e.g., HIV, organ transplant drugs) still need to have yearly PAP smears. Women whose mothers took DES while pregnant have an increased risk of an unusual type of cervical/vaginal cancer. Women with blunted immune system function are less likely to be able to clear HPV infections (new or old).



7. True. Therefore it is important not to be lax about getting PAP smears within the required interval for your age. It should also be noted that some of the women who were found to have cervical cancer had NEVER had a PAP smear.



8. True. DNA based tests for HPV are better at discriminating high grade cervical lesions than PAP smears. HPV test have a high degree of sensitivity (ability to detect HPV) of 94.6%. This is compared to a conventional PAP smears had a 55% sensitivity (Mayrand, 2007). However it costs more to do HPV testing, and more importantly, has a lower specificity (more "false positives").



9. False. Initially, most all studies reported liquid based PAP smears had a better ability to detect abnormal cervical cells. Currently over three fourths of PAP smears done in the US use this method rather than conventional PAP smears where a spatula collects cells which are smeared on a glass slide. There are other advantages of the liquid PAP method such as the ability to use leftover liquid if the GYN wants to order an HPV test as well.
   
   Recently Ronco and associates (2007) studied 45,000 Italian women, and determined that both liquid based and conventional PAP smears were equal in their ability to detect CIN 2 or higher. These are the more worrisome cervical cell changes. The liquid based PAPs were able to pick up more CIN 1 (less concerning), as well as decrease the number of unsatisfactory specimens.



10. True & False. This was not meant to be a trick question. Whether one continues to need PAP smears after hysterectomy depends upon the reason for hysterectomy and the type of hysterectomy done. If the uterus and cervix were removed for a non-cancer condition (e.g., fibroids, endometriosis, abnormal bleeding) there is no need to continue getting PAP smears.
    
    By contrast, if surgery left the cervix in place (even if the hysterectomy was for benign reasons) PAP smears must be continued until the usual time of discontinuation (e.g., age 65-70). If the uterus and cervix were removed in a woman with CIN 2-3, she should have PAPs for a minimum of ten years after the surgery. For women who have had removal of cervix and uterus for a cancer, a PAP smear of the back wall of the vagina should be done until the woman is in frail health.

So tally up your score of correct answers and give yourself a grade:

100% - You probably work in a GYN office!
90% - You could work in a GYN setting.
60%-80% - Your PAP smear knowledge is way ahead of the average person.
Less than 60% - Having learned more you can now educate your friends.

Related Topics:

• GYN Issues with Jane Harrison-Hohner, RN, RNP
• Get the Women's Health newsletter in your inbox weekly

Mysteries of Birth Control Pills Solved!

While most every birth control pill (BCP) user is familiar with information usually found in BCP package inserts and patient handouts, there are some questions which take a detective to answer. For that purpose I'm putting on my "Nancy Drew, Girl Detective" hat to share with you the answers to the following mysteries of birth control pills:

• Am I ovulating at mid-cycle when on my BCPs?



• Am I protected during my week of sugar pills?



• When will my cycle return?



• When will I be able to conceive?



• Which of my lifestyle choices might impact BCP effectiveness?

Midcycle ovulation should not be happening on birth control pills.
One of the most important ways that BCPs protect against unintended pregnancy is by suppressing ovulation. The most commonly used BCPs contain both synthetic estrogen and synthetic progesterone ("progestin"). Both types of hormones work to suppress development of follicles and the dominant follicle which was intended to ovulate. This is why BCPs are sometimes prescribed to help prevent growth of ovarian cysts. In one study (Egarter, 1995) 97% of women on birth control pills did not ovulate at any time in their pill pack. Interestingly, the two women who did have evidence of ovulation did not become pregnant.

By contrast, among women who use the progestin only "mini pill," only 29% did not ovulate (Tayob, 1986). Remember that the progestin only mini pills have no synthetic estrogen, and their doses of synthetic progesterone are very small. Pregnancy is prevented by other, additional mechanisms such as thicker cervical mucus and thinner lining of the uterus.

You should be protected during the placebo week of sugar or iron containing pills.
The suppression of ovulation described above is based upon the long "half-life" of synthetic estrogen and progestin. The two hormones were designed to last a longer time before being broken down than their "natural" counterparts. This increases contraceptive protection so that missed, or late pills, do not leave an opportunity for accidental pregnancy.

You may have been told, when starting BCPs for the first time, to take the first pill on the first day of your period-rather than waiting until the first Sunday. This is to provide better suppression of ovulation right away. In the "start your new prescription on the first day of your period" regimen, a woman will not need to use a back up method (e.g. condoms). Once the BCPs are started, one simply takes an active or sugar pill every day. They will be protected during the placebo week.

One study of 99 women (Elomaa, 1998) the women were asked to deliberately start their new pill pack three days late. This would create a ten day vacation off the hormones. Ultrasounds of the ovaries and blood hormone levels were taken. While many women showed enlarged follicles in the ovaries, no one actually ovulated. Thus suppression of ovulation may actually extend beyond the recommended seven days of sugar pills. However, as lower doses of synthetic estrogen are used (e.g. 20 micrograms), it becomes more likely that a dominant follicle might actually ovulate (van Huesden, 1999). In summary, to provide the widest protection to the greatest number of women, we still say protection is best when seven days (or less) of placebo pills are used.

Spontaneous periods should resume within 90 days.
Among 187 women using continuous BPCs (Lybrel) for one year, periods resumed most frequently only 32 days after the last BCP was taken. The incidence of spontaneous periods and/or pregnancy was 98.9% within three months of stopping BCPs. In this study (Davis, 2008) the time to return of periods was not related to duration of missed or very light flows while on Lybrel.

Lybrel is a very low dose BCP. If one is using a higher dose BCP the return of periods MIGHT take longer. This is especially true if you had a history of missed or irregular periods before starting to use BCPs - although some women with previously normal periods can have a delay in restarting as well. The incidence of no periods for six months after stopping BCPs ("post Pill amenorrhea") is probably less than 1%. Also, delay in return of menses does not seem to be linked to length of usage nor brand of BCP (Huggins, 1990)

Generally, if a woman has not resumed natural flows by six months after stopping BCPs it is time to get follow up with a GYN.

Within 12 months of stopping BCPs, conception rates are the same as untreated women.
In women using a very low dose, continuous BCP (Lybrel), the rates of conception were followed after they stopped their Lybrel. It took 57% three months to conceive, 81% twelve months to conceive, and by thirteen months 86% had conceived. (Barnhart, 2009).

This compares favorably to pregnancy rates among the general population where 57% have conceived within three months of trying. By twelve months of unprotected sex 85% of women will have conceived.

Both smoking and drinking can have a theoretical impact on BCPs.
Most women are aware that combining smoking and BCPs can increase the likelihood of blood clots in the arms, legs, lungs, heart (i.e. heart attack) or even the brain (i.e. stroke). But did you know that smoking cigarettes can actually lower blood estrogen levels? Among women smokers using postmenopausal hormone therapy, it may take higher doses of estrogen to get the same effects as seen in non-smokers. (Transavatdi, 2004). Nicotine can decrease blood estrogen levels whether in a BCP user or a condom user. This effect is thought to occur starting at about one pack per day. The concern is, among low dose BCP users, the blood levels of estrogen may not be high enough to suppress ovulation.

Given the known risk of clots in blood vessels, and the theoretical concern about reducing active hormone levels, one should consider quitting smoking if they use BCPs.

In one large study of over 17,000 women, women who consumed the equivalent of 8 oz of wine or 12 oz of beer had higher blood levels of several types of estrogens (Onland-Moret, 2005). None of the women studied were using hormones, but it is presumed that hormone users may show similar effects where alcohol increases estrogen levels.

Another study looked at the effects of using either grapefruit juice or herb tea to take a 50 microgram dose of synthetic estrogen (the type found in BCPs). Grapefruit juice, when used to take the estrogen pill, increased both the levels of estrogen and the duration of its effects. The herb tea did not show this result. It was postulated that the grapefruit juice inhibited the metabolism of the estrogen thus increasing estrogen effects (Weber, 1996).

Are you curious to know more about the various types of BCPs?
While your own GYN or family planning clinic are the best sources of individualized advice, you can learn more fascinating facts about BCPs from this great overview at WebMD: Comparing Birth Control Pill Types: Combination, Minipills, and More.

Related Topics:

• WebMD Birth Control Health Center
• GYN Issues with Jane Harrison-Hohner, RN, RNP
• Get the Women's Health newsletter in your inbox weekly

All About Breasts

My Breasts Don't Look Normal. Is Something Wrong?

Given the breast centered focus of western civilization it's no surprise that many women are critical of the size and shape of their breasts. But what if something is truly abnormal about a young woman's breasts - would she know it? The purpose of this post is to try and address what is within the range of normal for breast appearance - and what may not be.

Age Matters
What is too early for the beginnings of breast development? Many mothers would be surprised to hear that breast development is not considered premature if it appears in African American girls by age of seven, or in other girls by age eight! Mothers then worry about the development of premature/precocious puberty (full breast development, menstrual periods, etc). Fortunately 80% of early-developing girls will not come fully into puberty. In fact, breast development may halt, only to reappear at the more usual time.

So what is the usual time to be "developed"? Lack of any breast development by age thirteen merits some monitoring. The small, firm breast buds usually appear about age eleven. By age thirteen a majority of girls have the beginnings of a mound-shape of breast tissue. Unless there is an overt reason for lack of development such as illness, radiation exposure, or hormonal problems there is evidence that breast development can continue until one's early 20's.

Size Might Matter
While most all of us have at least some difference in size between our two breasts, there are situations where the size difference is very apparent. Size differences which onset in teen years will likely equalize for about 75% of women.

Very large breasts can develop in teen women. This can occur on just one side or be bilateral. In this instance normalization of size is unlikely to happen. While a tumor can prompt a very large breast, most enlargement is related to a robust tissue response to normal hormonal influences. According to DeSilva (2006) there is no increased risk for breast cancer among young women with an extremely enlarged breast. Cosmetic surgery, if indicated, can be done. Reduction of a very large breast(s) is called reduction mammoplasty. Unlike breast augmentation (i.e. breast implants) there is usually more apparent scarring.

Conversely, there can be insufficient breast development on one or both breasts. One type that seems to cause particular distress creates a tall tube shaped breast. There is tissue growth under the nipple, but no rounded breast mound. Again, plastic surgery is the usual treatment.

Extra Nipples?
Having extra nipples has been reported in 1-2% of women. The line along which extra nipples are usually found extends from the armpit to the groin. Extra nipples do not usually have associated breast tissue so they may go unnoticed. A woman may think that the "accessory nipple" is a mole or other skin lesion. These do not have to be surgically removed unless, like a mole, they become inflamed by restrictive underwear or clothes.

Hormonal Medications
It has been noted that women using birth control pills may experience bilateral breast enlargement. This has been attributed to the hormone estrogen. A similar effect can occur in older women using post-menopausal hormonal therapy. Usually this is not a lasting effect, and size goes back down when the medication is stopped.

Previously, medications which block estrogen effects were tried as a treatment for too early or excessive breast development (Bloom 2008). This is not a standard treatment, however.

Breast Enlargement Options?
There are breast enlarging creams and herbal products advertised on the internet. As new products are touted, our Women's Health Board gets a spate of questions about the effectiveness of such products. The array of products includes pills, creams, devices, and even a chewing gum! I would concur with the review article written by Dr. A. Fugh-Berman (2003) published in the journal Obstetrics/Gynecology. She investigated many of the herbal ingredients touted to increase breast size. A few ingredients have the possibility of producing weak estrogen-like hormones. Yet most have no data to support their use for breast enlargement. Perhaps most concerning is there are no long term safety studies. In the real world, women may not use such products for very long when the promised 3-5 cup size increase does not appear.

Honestly, the most reliable way to get a larger breast size (short of weight gain or pregnancy) is breast augmentation done by surgically inserting a saline or silicone implant. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons reports an increase for cosmetic surgery from 14,000 in 1996 to 333,000 in 2005 for patients under age eighteen. At least 90% of those were females. Breast augmentation is one of the two most frequent plastic surgery procedures performed on teens (Zuckerman, 2008).

Since most health insurance will not cover breast augmentation, the costs have to be borne by the young woman, or her family. While the decision to do augmentation is a very personal decision it is worth understanding some of the risks. The FDA has not approved the use of saline implants in women under age 18, nor the use of silicone implants in women age 21 and younger. Surgeons can still do the procedure, but the benefits have not been demonstrated to out weigh the risks to the satisfaction of the FDA. Currently breast implants have a limited life expectancy. According to Zuckerman breast implants typically last about 10 years, and there is an increased of scar tissue formation the longer the implant is in place.

Interestingly, a study of women planning to get breast implants because of dissatisfaction with being too small, found that there was no difference in bra sizes compared to a group of women who were satisfied with their breast sizes (Didie, 2003).

Jane's Economy Breast Lift
Thus far we have moved from discussing medically focused breast issues through more self-concept, or cosmetic, concerns. Most women can think of a change in breast size, or firmness which they would prefer if the Fairy Godmother of Breast Structure was to grant them a wish. Would you be willing to develop a firmer breast profile without drugs, surgery, or any cost? OK, I was skeptical, too. But here it is-free to my readers:

Chest Exercises to Help Tone and More

If you do a few simple exercises, especially if combined with a balanced body work out, you will get better contours. As a bonus, saggy underarms (triceps flop) can improve. It will not increase or decrease your cup size by three to five sizes, but it will make what you have look better. And after all, isn't enhancing what we have been given what it's all about?

Related Topics:

• WebMD Video: Lollipop Breast Reduction
• WebMD Video: Breast Implants - Size Matters
• A Lifetime of Healthy Breasts
• Mastopexy or Breast Lifting Procedures
• GYN Issues with Jane Harrison-Hohner, RN, RNP
• Get the Women's Health newsletter in your inbox weekly

Can A Vagina Be Too Big?

Faithful readers of this blog may remember that Masters and Johnson examined the vaginal sizes of 100 women who had never been pregnant. These women showed an un-stimulated vaginal length of 2 ¾-3 ¼ inches , with a ¾ inch width at the back of the vagina. During the sexual excitement phase the vaginal lengths increased to 3 ¾- 5 ¾ inches, with the width at the back of the vagina being 2 ¼-2 ½ inches. This correlates with our most common diaphragm sizes which are between 2 ½ -3 ½ inches in length.

"But I'm not worried about vaginal length," you might be thinking. "My problem is that I think my vagina is too loose - or too wide. Is that possible? If so what can I do?" Let's examine some of the medical data available to answer these questions.

Is my vagina too loose?
The vagina is like a collapsed, expandable tube lined with skin; the tissue below the skin is loose and contains large veins. Next are smaller circular muscles surrounded by stronger bands of muscle which run the length of the vagina. In addition, the lower third of the vagina is surrounded by a ring of muscles. This is covered by more connective tissue and blood vessels. Damage to these muscles, or if they become thin and weak, can allow the bladder ("cytocele") or rectum ("rectocele") to pouch into the vagina. Thus you can understand the importance of strong vaginal muscles. The ring of muscles around the vaginal opening contract during orgasm and may contribute to the intensity of an orgasm.

So what is too loose? This can be a matter of opinion based upon the input of a sexual partner, or one's observations of vaginal tone. Researchers have devised some ways to measure vaginal tone such as a pressure sensitive intravaginal balloon device, and ultrasound measurements of vaginal area ("pelvic floor") muscle thickness. A study of 30 women aged 20-42 found that better developed vaginal muscles were linked to having orgasms, and getting physical exercise. Conversely, increased age and having been pregnant were linked to decreased strength of vaginal muscles (McKey and Dougherty 1986).

A more recent study using ultrasound measurements (Bernstein,1997) found similar connections. Muscle thickness decreases with age, especially in women older than 60. Women with urinary incontinence had thinner pelvic floor muscles than women who were not incontinent.

Will exercising the vaginal muscles make my vagina tighter?
Two ultrasound studies of women who exercised their vaginal muscles did find that their muscles were thicker and stronger after pelvic floor muscle training. Among women with urine leakage, their thinner muscles became the thickness of healthy women's pelvic floor muscles. Additionally, they had less urine leakage - whether the problem was from stress or urge types of incontinence. The use of vaginal cones and/or Kegel exercises to increase muscle strength were both found to improve tone and decrease urine loss. While some of these studies did not measure vaginal tightness per se, when muscle bulk is increased, a woman can voluntarily contract those muscles to make the vaginal opening tighter.

Do tighter vaginal muscles really improve sexual response?
Despite the fact that most every discussion of Kegel exercises includes improved sex, there are not many scientific studies to back up this claim. One recent publication (Dean, 2008) reported on sexual function and pelvic muscle factors for some 2,800 women. Women who delivered only by Caesarean section (and their partners) perceived they had better vaginal tone leading to improved sexual satisfaction. Women who were currently doing pelvic muscle exercises scored much better on sexual satisfaction questions than women who did not. Women with incontinence (probably thinner muscles) scored the worst on the sex questions.

I've tried Kegel exercises but they don't work for me.
Assuming that the Kegel exercises have been done correctly, it may be time to move to other options. One low tech choice is weighted vaginal cones. This is a set of weights, shaped more like a tampon than a cone, where one inserts the lightest version then uses the vaginal muscles to hold it up inside. This is done twice daily. When this is easy the next heaviest cone is used - and so on. This is to be done while going about normal activities so that gravity provides an additional challenge to keeping the weight up inside.

More technology is involved in the electrical stimulator. A tampon shaped probe is inserted in the vagina and small electric shocks cause the muscles to contract then relax. This is done about 20 minutes up to several times a week. One patient of mine who used this device found it sexually pleasurable.

Less commonly used may be the "magnetic chair" ("Neocontrol"). This chair uses magnetic action to stimulate the muscles. I know this sounds very "woo, woo", but there is good data showing its effectiveness. This device is not for home use; treatments are given twice weekly by specially trained health care personnel.

Will plastic surgery make my vagina smaller?
Many genital plastic surgery techniques are based upon GYN surgical procedures used for medical problems such as reconstruction after cancer treatment, gender change, repair of cystocele/rectocele, etc. Unfortunately there are few good studies showing benefit where there is no overt medical problem.

One study of 53 women in Santiago, Chile (Pardo, 2006) was done specifically for complaints of wide vagina and decreased sexual satisfaction. The surgeons did two procedures. The first was inside the vagina where tissue along the roof was stitched tighter. This is similar to the type of repair done for a cystocele. Secondly, tissue around the vaginal opening and between the vagina and anus was stitched tighter. This is similar to the type of repair done for episiotomies after childbirth. Six months after surgery 94% claimed they experienced a tighter vagina, and had regained or improved orgasms. Yet some 4% of the women said they regretted the surgery.

The problem with this type of study is that sexual response can be very subjective. There is no easy way to measure sexual satisfaction in a group of diverse women. Every woman knew she got the surgical treatment so six months may not be a long enough time for any placebo response to wear off.

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG, 2007) has noted the lack of both safety and effectiveness data for genital plastic surgery. The possible complications for such surgery might include: infection, changes in sensation, pain with intercourse, and scar tissue. One GYN who has been performing genital plastic surgery for a number of years (Goodman, 2009) concluded that agreed upon terminology and training standards are still lacking.

What are you going to do, Jane?
As a big advocate of resistance/weight training to build muscles, I personally think exercise is a better place to start than surgery. As always, if a woman has concerns about sexual function, vaginal/genital structures, etc she should bring these up to her GYN. A GYN sees the wide range of "normal" in vaginal appearances. Yet, if one is having sexual problems due to genital changes, your GYN needs to know that is an issue.

If you are interested in exercising your vaginal muscles here are some instructions to get your started: Kegel Exercises - Topic Overview.

Related Topics:

• Better Sex for Women?
• GYN Issues with Jane Harrison-Hohner, RN, RNP
• Get the Women's Health newsletter in your inbox weekly

Missed Periods - Premature Menopause?

As a reader of this blog you probably know that missed periods, very late, and erratic periods usually can be attributed to missed ovulations. Yet when hot flashes or night sweats are also present many younger women wonder "Could I have premature menopause?" After reading this post you should have the information needed to work with your GYN to get a definitive answer.

Is there a difference between early menopause, premature menopause, and premature ovarian failure?

Overall, menopause means the failure of ovaries to produce estrogen. Estrogen builds up the lining of the uterus so that there is something to shed as a period. Technically, if your uterus is removed with a hysterectomy you will have no more periods. Yet if the ovaries are still in place and working, a woman is not yet in menopause. If ovaries are taken out that is considered "surgical menopause."

According to the North American Menopause Society, early menopause is when the last, natural menstrual period occurs before age 45, while premature menopause indicates a woman aged 40 or less. Premature ovarian failure (POF), like premature menopause, also is linked to being age 40 or younger. Among researchers who study POF, a term used first by the French "Ovarian Insufficiency" may become the new standard term for POF. I'll explain why that is the most appropriate term in a moment.

How common is POF?
Overall the incidence in the USA is reported to be 1-4% of women. While POF can be triggered by medical interventions such as chemotherapy, radiation, or surgery, the greatest number of women will not have an observable cause. The majority of woman with POF will have had prior menstrual periods.

The exceptions to these generalizations are in teenagers, who have not yet had a first period. In this specific group there is a 50% incidence of an abnormal, genetic karyotype. If this is suspected specialized testing is done, along with genetic counseling.

Is it true that POF can reverse back to normal?
The answer here is both "yes" and "no". About half of younger women (age less than 40) with a clear diagnosis of POF will experience normal function of the ovary that can come and go. That's why the term "Ovarian Insufficiency" may end up as the new standard name for POF. Insufficiency suggests the status quo might return - it is not permanent as implied by the idea of "menopause."

Does that mean I COULD get pregnant after a diagnosis of POF?
The data suggests that 5-10% of POF women will conceive unexpectedly. That is good news if women are trying to conceive. But the majority of women with POF will usually have a family via donor eggs, or adoption. There have been numerous studies of ovulation induction treatments (eg. Clomid, estrogens, GnRH, FSH, etc.) for women with POF. Alas, the best designed studies have failed to show ovulation rates any better than in untreated POF women (Sinha, 2007).

What if I don't want to get pregnant?
Among women who become menopausal at around age 50, we suggest some type of birth control should be used for one year after the last period. For women with POF, contraception should be used for a minimum of two years. Because of the intermittent, and unpredictable, ovulations in some women there are reports of POF women conceiving 8-15 years after there diagnosis of POF! For birth control, barrier methods (eg condoms/spermicide, diaphragm) or birth control pills (BCPs) can be used. BCPs have the additional benefit of adding needed estrogen if a woman's ovaries are not producing their own estrogen. One study (Buckler, 1993) found that BCP use did not enhance the return of normal ovary function.

What should I ask of my GYN if I want them to check for POF?
There is no completely standardized evaluation for POF. Generally, the following four elements need to be present to make a diagnosis of POF:

• Absent periods for 4, or more, months
• Age 40 or less
• Evidence of low estrogen (eg vaginal dryness, hot flashes, etc)
• FSH blood test results of more than 40mIU on two tests taken a little over a month apart

Probably the most important part of the work up for POF is for the GYN to consider it as a possibility. One study of 48 women with POF found age 25 to be the average age of symptom onset, but it took two years to get the correct diagnosis. Almost two thirds of the women had to see three or more MDs before getting the correct diagnosis (Alzubaidi, 2002).

Where can I learn more?
Of all the internet sites I reviewed, I believe that these two have some of the best information.

• Premature Ovarian Failure Support Group
• National institutes of Health: Premature Ovarian Failure

Related Topics:

• Too Young for Menopause
• Menopause Health Center
• Get the Women's Health newsletter in your inbox weekly